How to simplify the operation of a modulating smelter?

To investigate further this scenario and in order to simplify the operations of a modulating smelter, we constrained the optimization model to use a power modulation scheme between points B and C only, which correspond to −8.69% and +8.68% from the nominal power settings of the reduction cell.

How much does it cost to retrofit a 320 cell smelter?

The cost of retrofitting an entire 320 cell smelter with a nominal current of 160 kA is estimated at around $45,000 per cell with a payback period of 2.8 years according to Enpot figures [38, 39]. Modern cell costs are reaching upwards of $300,000 and their lifetime is on average 6 years .

How much Alumina does a smelter use?

To produce 1 kg of primary aluminum at an efficient smelter requires 1.93 kg of Alumina (deriving from 4 kg of bauxite), 0.4–0.5 kg of Carbon, 20 g AlF3, 50 g cryolite, and 12–16 kWh of electricity [21, 22].

How much energy is needed for a storage system?

Storage demand increases sequentially from 1.54 GWh (battery) for 50% integration, to 9.81 GWh (battery) for 75%, integration to 17.6 GWh (battery) and 47.3 GWh (hydrogen) for 100% integration.

How a smelter makes carbon block anodes?

The liquid Al is emptied into crucibles and transported for alloying or downstream processing. As alumina is reduced to Al concentrating in the cathode, the oxygen atoms oxidize and consume the carbon block anodes. To make the process economic, an entire wing of an aluminum smelter is dedicated to manufacturing these carbon anodes continuously.